Gastric acidGastric acid, gastric juice, or stomach acid is a digestive fluid formed within the stomach lining. With a pH between 1 and 3, gastric acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins by activating digestive enzymes, which together break down the long chains of amino acids of proteins. Gastric acid is regulated in feedback systems to increase production when needed, such as after a meal. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring a regulated pH.
HistologyHistology, also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, is the branch of biology that studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues. Histology is the microscopic counterpart to gross anatomy, which looks at larger structures visible without a microscope. Although one may divide microscopic anatomy into organology, the study of organs, histology, the study of tissues, and cytology, the study of cells, modern usage places all of these topics under the field of histology.
AnatomyAnatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales.
Digestive enzymeDigestive enzymes are a group of enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules into their smaller building blocks, in order to facilitate their absorption into the cells of the body. Digestive enzymes are found in the digestive tracts of animals (including humans) and in the tracts of carnivorous plants, where they aid in the digestion of food, as well as inside cells, especially in their lysosomes, where they function to maintain cellular survival.
StomachThe stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach is involved in the gastric phase of digestion, following chewing. It performs a chemical breakdown by means of enzymes and hydrochloric acid. In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine.
Bacterial secretion systemBacterial secretion systems are protein complexes present on the cell membranes of bacteria for secretion of substances. Specifically, they are the cellular devices used by pathogenic bacteria to secrete their virulence factors (mainly of proteins) to invade the host cells. They can be classified into different types based on their specific structure, composition and activity. Generally, proteins can be secreted through two different processes.
AchlorhydriaAchlorhydria and hypochlorhydria refer to states where the production of hydrochloric acid in gastric secretions of the stomach and other digestive organs is absent or low, respectively. It is associated with various other medical problems. Irrespective of the cause, achlorhydria can result as known complications of bacterial overgrowth and intestinal metaplasia and symptoms are often consistent with those diseases: gastroesophageal reflux disease abdominal discomfort early satiety weight loss diarrhea constipation abdominal bloating anemia stomach infection malabsorption of food carcinoma of stomach Since acidic pH facilitates the absorption of iron, achlorhydric patients often develop iron deficiency anemia.
Type III secretion systemThe type III secretion system (T3SS or TTSS), also called the injectisome, is one of the bacterial secretion systems used by bacteria to secrete their effector proteins into the host's cells to promote virulence and colonisation. The T3SS is a needle-like protein complex found in several species of pathogenic gram-negative bacteria. The term Type III secretion system was coined in 1993. This secretion system is distinguished from at least five other secretion systems found in gram-negative bacteria.
Fixation (histology)In the fields of histology, pathology, and cell biology, fixation is the preservation of biological tissues from decay due to autolysis or putrefaction. It terminates any ongoing biochemical reactions and may also increase the treated tissues' mechanical strength or stability. Tissue fixation is a critical step in the preparation of histological sections, its broad objective being to preserve cells and tissue components and to do this in such a way as to allow for the preparation of thin, stained sections.
Bile acidBile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals and other vertebrates. Diverse bile acids are synthesized in the liver. Bile acids are conjugated with taurine or glycine residues to give anions called bile salts. Primary bile acids are those synthesized by the liver. Secondary bile acids result from bacterial actions in the colon. In humans, taurocholic acid and glycocholic acid (derivatives of cholic acid) and taurochenodeoxycholic acid and glycochenodeoxycholic acid (derivatives of chenodeoxycholic acid) are the major bile salts.
Indiana University BloomingtonIndiana University Bloomington (IU Bloomington, Indiana University, IU, or simply Indiana) is a public research university in Bloomington, Indiana. It is the flagship campus of Indiana University and its largest campus with over 40,000 students. Indiana University is a member of the Association of American Universities and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".
Indiana University School of MedicineThe Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM) is a major, multi-campus medical school located throughout the U.S. state of Indiana and is the graduate medical school of Indiana University. There are nine campuses throughout the state; the principal research, educational, and medical center is located on the Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) campus in Indianapolis. With 1,452 MD students, 203 PhD students, and 1,356 residents and fellows in the 2022–23 academic year, IUSM is the largest medical school in the United States.
Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of LawThe Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law (IU McKinney) is located on the campus of Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) in Indianapolis, Indiana, the urban campus of Indiana University. In the summer of 2001, the school moved to its new building, Lawrence W. Inlow Hall. IU McKinney is one of two law schools operated by Indiana University, the other being the Indiana University Maurer School of Law (IU Maurer) in Bloomington.
Indiana UniversityIndiana University (IU) is a system of public universities in the U.S. state of Indiana. Indiana University has two core campuses, five regional campuses, and two regional centers under the administration of IUPUI. Indiana University Bloomington (IU Bloomington) is the flagship campus of Indiana University.
Indiana University School of Liberal Arts at IUPUIThe Indiana University School of Liberal Arts is the home of the humanities and social sciences at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), an urban, research campus. The only liberal arts school in the Indiana University system, the School of Liberal Arts has 11 departments (Anthropology, Communication Studies, Economics, English, Geography, History, Philosophy, Political Science, Religious Studies, Sociology, and World Languages & Cultures), 16 undergraduate degree programs (including those offered in departmental disciplines as well as American Sign Language/English Interpreting, International Studies, Philanthropic Studies and the Individualized Major Program), and 15 graduate degrees and certificates including Ph.
Indiana University–Purdue University Fort WayneIndiana University–Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW) was a public university in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Founded in 1964, IPFW was a cooperatively-managed regional campus of two state university systems: Indiana University and Purdue University. IPFW hit its highest enrollment in 2014, with 13,459 undergraduate and postgraduate students in nine colleges and schools, including a branch of the Indiana University School of Medicine. During its last academic year (2017–2018), IPFW had a total enrollment of 10,414 students.
Indiana Wesleyan UniversityIndiana Wesleyan University (IWU) is a private evangelical Christian university headquartered in Marion, Indiana, and affiliated with the Wesleyan Church. It is the largest private university in Indiana. The university system includes IWU—Marion, where nearly 3,000 students are enrolled in traditional programs on the main campus in Marion and IWU-National & Global which consists of 6,800 adult learners who study online or onsite at 15 education centers in Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio.
Jacobs School of MusicThe Indiana University Jacobs School of Music in Bloomington, Indiana, is a music conservatory established in 1921. Until 2005, it was known as the Indiana University School of Music. It has more than 1,500 students, approximately half of whom are undergraduates, with the second largest enrollment of all music schools accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music. In 1907, Charles Campbell arranged for a recital of the Schellschmidt Quartet of Indianapolis, the proceeds of which established a music fund, "to lead ultimately to the equipment of a school of music in the university.
