Phases of clinical researchThe phases of clinical research are the stages in which scientists conduct experiments with a health intervention to obtain sufficient evidence for a process considered effective as a medical treatment. For drug development, the clinical phases start with testing for drug safety in a few human subjects, then expand to many study participants (potentially tens of thousands) to determine if the treatment is effective. Clinical research is conducted on drug candidates, vaccine candidates, new medical devices, and new diagnostic assays.
InfectionAn infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection. Infections can be caused by a wide range of pathogens, most prominently bacteria and viruses. Hosts can fight infections using their immune systems. Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response.
Épuration des eauxthumb|Station d'épuration des eaux à Aguas Corrientes, en Uruguay. L’épuration des eaux est un ensemble de techniques qui consistent à purifier l'eau soit pour réutiliser ou recycler les eaux usées dans le milieu naturel, soit pour transformer les eaux naturelles en eau potable. La fin du marque l'essor des réseaux d'égouttage et d'assainissement en France (courant hygiéniste, rénovation de Paris du baron Haussman). Il s'agit d'éloigner les eaux usées des habitations et des lieux de vie.
Secondary treatmentSecondary treatment (mostly biological wastewater treatment) is the removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) from sewage or similar kinds of wastewater. The aim is to achieve a certain degree of effluent quality in a sewage treatment plant suitable for the intended disposal or reuse option. A "primary treatment" step often precedes secondary treatment, whereby physical phase separation is used to remove settleable solids.
Thérapie géniquedroite|vignette|340px|Thérapie génique à base d'un vecteur adénovirus (virothérapie). Un nouveau gène est inséré dans un vecteur dérivé d'un adénovirus, lequel est utilisé pour introduire l'ADN modifié dans une cellule humaine. Si le transfert se déroule correctement, le nouveau gène élaborera une protéine fonctionnelle qui pourra alors exprimer son potentiel thérapeutique. vignette|upright=1.5 La thérapie génique ou génothérapie est une stratégie thérapeutique qui consiste à faire pénétrer des gènes dans les cellules ou les tissus d'un individu pour traiter une maladie.
Pathogenic bacteriaPathogenic bacteria are bacteria that can cause disease. This article focuses on the bacteria that are pathogenic to humans. Most species of bacteria are harmless and are often beneficial but others can cause infectious diseases. The number of these pathogenic species in humans is estimated to be fewer than a hundred. By contrast, several thousand species are part of the gut flora present in the digestive tract.
Skin infectionA skin infection is an infection of the skin in humans and other animals, that can also affect the associated soft tissues such as loose connective tissue and mucous membranes. They comprise a category of infections termed skin and skin structure infections (SSSIs), or skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), and acute bacterial SSSIs (ABSSSIs). They are distinguished from dermatitis (inflammation of the skin), although skin infections can result in skin inflammation.
Invasive carcinoma of no special typeInvasive carcinoma of no special type (NST) is also referred to as invasive ductal carcinoma or infiltrating ductal carcinoma (IDC) and invasive ductal carcinoma, not otherwise specified (NOS). Each of these terms represents to the same disease entity, but for international audiences this article will use invasive carcinoma NST because it is the preferred term of the World Health Organization (WHO). Invasive carcinoma NST accounts for half of all breast cancer diagnoses in women and is the most common type of invasive breast cancer.
Water treatmentWater treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it appropriate for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. This treatment is crucial to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and irrigation use.
Preclinical developmentIn drug development, preclinical development, also termed preclinical studies or nonclinical studies, is a stage of research that begins before clinical trials (testing in humans) and during which important feasibility, iterative testing and drug safety data are collected, typically in laboratory animals. The main goals of preclinical studies are to determine a starting, safe dose for first-in-human study and assess potential toxicity of the product, which typically include new medical devices, prescription drugs, and diagnostics.
Bacterial pneumoniaBacterial pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by bacterial infection. Streptococcus pneumoniae () is the most common bacterial cause of pneumonia in all age groups except newborn infants. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a Gram-positive bacterium that often lives in the throat of people who do not have pneumonia. Other important Gram-positive causes of pneumonia are Staphylococcus aureus () and Bacillus anthracis.
Souris« Souris » est un nom du vocabulaire courant qui peut désigner toutes sortes de mammifères rongeurs ayant généralement une petite taille, un museau pointu, des oreilles rondes, un pelage gris-brun et une queue relativement longue. Autrement dit, ce terme ne correspond pas à un niveau précis de la classification scientifique des espèces. Il s'agit d'un nom vernaculaire dont le sens est ambigu en biologie, car il est applicable seulement à une partie des espèces classées dans l'ordre des Rodentia.
