Calculation in kindNOTOC Calculation in kind or calculation in-natura is a way of valuating resources and a system of accounting that uses disaggregated physical magnitudes as opposed to a common unit of calculation. As the basis for a socialist economy, it was proposed to replace money and financial calculation. In an in-kind economy products are produced for their use values (their utility) and accounted in physical terms. By contrast, in money-based economies, commodities are produced for their exchange value and accounted in monetary terms.
Perméabilité (matériau)La perméabilité d'un milieu poreux mesure son aptitude à se laisser traverser par un fluide sous l'effet d'un gradient de pression ou d'un champ de gravité. Cette quantité est liée à la loi de Darcy. L'absence de perméabilité s'appelle l'imperméabilité. Une hypothèse sous-jacente à la définition est que l'écoulement dans le milieu est un écoulement en régime de Stokes. Cette hypothèse est utilisée pour établir l'équation de Darcy à partir de la description de la porosité par la méthode de prise de moyenne volumique ou par homogénéisation.
SurfaceA surface, as the term is most generally used, is the outermost or uppermost layer of a physical object or space. It is the portion or region of the object that can first be perceived by an observer using the senses of sight and touch, and is the portion with which other materials first interact. The surface of an object is more than "a mere geometric solid", but is "filled with, spread over by, or suffused with perceivable qualities such as color and warmth".
Modèle statistiqueUn modèle statistique est une description mathématique approximative du mécanisme qui a généré les observations, que l'on suppose être un processus stochastique et non un processus déterministe. Il s’exprime généralement à l’aide d’une famille de distributions (ensemble de distributions) et d’hypothèses sur les variables aléatoires X1, . . ., Xn. Chaque membre de la famille est une approximation possible de F : l’inférence consiste donc à déterminer le membre qui s’accorde le mieux avec les données.
Conductivité hydrauliqueLa conductivité hydraulique, généralement notée K, est une grandeur qui exprime l'aptitude d'un milieu poreux à laisser passer un fluide sous l'effet d'un gradient de pression. Dans le Système international d'unités elle s'exprime en mètres par seconde (m/s). La conductivité hydraulique est une grandeur qui dépend à la fois des propriétés du milieu poreux où l’écoulement a lieu (granulométrie, forme des grains, répartition et forme des pores, porosité intergranulaire), des propriétés du fluide qui s'écoule (viscosité, densité) et du degré de saturation du milieu poreux.
Théorie de KirchhoffLa théorie de Kirchhoff est une théorie de la diffraction qui permet, à l'aide du théorème de Green, de donner une formulation mathématique au principe de Huygens-Fresnel et de modéliser la propagation d'une onde à travers des ouvertures diffractantes. Elle a été introduite par le physicien Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887).
Statistical assumptionStatistics, like all mathematical disciplines, does not infer valid conclusions from nothing. Inferring interesting conclusions about real statistical populations almost always requires some background assumptions. Those assumptions must be made carefully, because incorrect assumptions can generate wildly inaccurate conclusions. Here are some examples of statistical assumptions: Independence of observations from each other (this assumption is an especially common error). Independence of observational error from potential confounding effects.
Watertable controlIn geotechnical engineering, watertable control is the practice of controlling the height of the water table by drainage. Its main applications are in agricultural land (to improve the crop yield using agricultural drainage systems) and in cities to manage the extensive underground infrastructure that includes the foundations of large buildings, underground transit systems, and extensive utilities (water supply networks, sewerage, storm drains, and underground electrical grids).
Groundwater modelGroundwater models are computer models of groundwater flow systems, and are used by hydrologists and hydrogeologists. Groundwater models are used to simulate and predict aquifer conditions. An unambiguous definition of "groundwater model" is difficult to give, but there are many common characteristics. A groundwater model may be a scale model or an electric model of a groundwater situation or aquifer. Groundwater models are used to represent the natural groundwater flow in the environment.
Statistical theoryThe theory of statistics provides a basis for the whole range of techniques, in both study design and data analysis, that are used within applications of statistics. The theory covers approaches to statistical-decision problems and to statistical inference, and the actions and deductions that satisfy the basic principles stated for these different approaches. Within a given approach, statistical theory gives ways of comparing statistical procedures; it can find a best possible procedure within a given context for given statistical problems, or can provide guidance on the choice between alternative procedures.
Diffraction from slitsDiffraction processes affecting waves are amenable to quantitative description and analysis. Such treatments are applied to a wave passing through one or more slits whose width is specified as a proportion of the wavelength. Numerical approximations may be used, including the Fresnel and Fraunhofer approximations. Because diffraction is the result of addition of all waves (of given wavelength) along all unobstructed paths, the usual procedure is to consider the contribution of an infinitesimally small neighborhood around a certain path (this contribution is usually called a wavelet) and then integrate over all paths (= add all wavelets) from the source to the detector (or given point on a screen).
