A close look at temperature profiles during laser powder bed fusion using operando X-ray diffraction and finite element simulations

In laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), complex components are manufactured layer-by-layer via scanning the cross-sections of a 3D CAD model using a high intensity laser. Throughout this process, the material is exposed to temperature profiles that significantly differ from conventional manufacturing methods, and result in develop-ment of a unique and inhomogeneous microstructure and high levels of residual stresses in additively fabricated parts. The large temperature gradients and rapid cooling rates around the moving laser spot, and the overall heterogeneity of the temperature field need to be better understood in order to optimize the process parameters for increased production quality. In this study, operando X-ray diffraction (XRD) was employed to measure and compare temperature histories on the laser path under various processing conditions for Hastelloy X. Finite el-ement thermal simulations were validated based on the acquired XRD data and then used as a supplementary tool to discuss the cooling behaviour and thermal heterogeneities across the geometry. The increase in the de-posited energy density was qualitatively linked with higher temperature levels and slower cooling rates during LPBF. The melt-pool lengths showed strong sensitivity to the laser power and little variation with the scanning speed. Furthermore, even for a single set of parameters, large variations in the temperature field within the build were observed such that the cross-section edges located at higher build layers were exposed to markedly higher temperature levels.