Biosensors for Biotoxins Detection and Monitoring

Biotoxins produced by cyanobacteria, marine dinoflagellates, and fungi increasingly threaten water quality, food safety, and human health. Many toxins are still monitored primarily by sensitive laboratory techniques such as liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) or immunoassays (e.g., ELISA), which are often time‐consuming, require extensive sample preparation, can suffer from cross‐reactivity and possess limited specificity for small molecules. Biosensors offer a complementary approach by combining selective recognition elements with miniaturized transducers to deliver rapid, portable, and potentially multiplexed detection. In this review, we evaluate recent biosensor developments that use antibodies, nucleic acids, proteins, peptides, aptamers, nanopores, molecularly imprinted polymers and cells coupled to optical, electrochemical, and mass‐sensitive transducers for detecting toxins such as microcystins, tetrodotoxin, saxitoxin, aflatoxins, and deoxynivalenol. We focus on analytical performance (limits of detection, dynamic range, response time), validation in complex matrices, and practical readiness for field deployment and briefly discuss how artificial intelligence will play an important role for the development of the next generation of biosensors.